| 英文摘要: | Scientists, educators and policymakers continue to face challenges when it comes to finding effective strategies to engage the public on climate change. We argue that games on the subject of climate change are well-suited to address these challenges because they can serve as effective tools for education and engagement. Recently, there has been a dramatic increase in the development of such games, many featuring innovative designs that blur traditional boundaries (for example, those that involve social media, alternative reality games, or those that involve direct action upon the real world). Here, we present an overview of the types of climate change game currently available, the benefits and trade-offs of their use, and reasons why they hold such promise for education and engagement regarding climate change.
Imagine you have the ability to travel through time and hear voicemail recordings from 100 years into the future. If present trends in sea-level rise or atmospheric warming continue, what kinds of story would be told regarding everyday life in these voicemail messages? Picture yourself seated at the table of global political negotiations as a key decision-maker on climate policy. How would you balance your nation's demand for economic development with the need for environmental stewardship for future generations? Take responsibility for polar bears, ringed seals and other animals in the Arctic. How would it feel to be in control of human decisions and forces of nature that lead to carbon pollution and other impacts on the environment? These are the kinds of new experience and perspective afforded to players when they participate in climate change games such as FutureCoast, Fate of the World and EcoChains: Arctic Crisis. They are part of an entire genre of climate change games that offer powerful tools for education and engagement. Public concern about climate change has declined since peaking in 20071. Many have become wary of information shared about the topic, while attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about climate change continue to be strongly mediated by political ideologies2, 3. Programmes such as the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development have made global calls to teach about climate change4. These calls are now increasingly reflected in international assessments of science education5. Many countries have responded with curricular reform6, 7, 8, creating a demand for tools that can help teach about the physical and social processes that cause long-term atmospheric warming. Clearly, there is an urgent need for effective ways to engage diverse audiences about global climate change. Climate change games may offer the tools necessary to address these challenges. We define climate change games as games and simulations that have climate change as a central theme and focus on the processes, role of human systems and potential impacts regarding climate change. As in a previous study9, we exclude games where climate change forms only a minor aspect, such as in emissions calculators and interactive tools. While we attempt to provide a balanced review of digital and non-digital formats, we also highlight current trends that reflect a dramatic increase in the development of computer and mobile-based games. We conclude with a consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of game formats that can help inform scientists and educators in their use and utility.
Games are natural tools for climate change education and engagement. They can engross players and place them in climate-centred scenarios, as shown by participation in the games mentioned above. In this way, games provide 'designed experiences' where players can learn through doing and being, rather than absorbing information from readings and traditional lecture formats10. This can be extremely powerful, as decision science has shown that first-hand experience is a much better teacher than exposure to information because of the emotional pathways it triggers11. These experiences are not only highly engaging, they also allow players to build empathy by taking on various roles and perspectives12, 13. They allow for visioning — for example, being able to envision oneself in the future — and seeing consequences of actions at different points in time14. Furthermore, games deliver experiences that tap into a range of human emotions, from fear and aggression to joy and wonder15. Climate change games are thus able to target affective outcomes, such as players' motivations, attitudes and values16. For instance, games can promote a winner's mentality, which is what some have described as 'urgent optimism' and the belief that an 'epic win' is always possible17. An 'epic win' refers to finding solutions to difficult problems, which is particularly apt for addressing climate change. Finding new, more effective solutions often involves a trial and error process, and games can make it easier and less intimidating to identify new strategies11. In a game, one is able to simulate complex models or provide a level of control that is not possible in the real world. This is particularly advantageous when dealing with global atmospheric systems that would be otherwise difficult to bring to a hands-on level. One game that does this is The Farmers18, a card-game that involves the management of common-pool resources and integrates second-order delayed effects of carbon emissions and political actors with individual goals and asymmetrical abilities. The thoughtful mechanics are intended to allow players to experience the gradual impact and complexities of real-world climate negotiations. We suggest that games such as The Farmers may allow players to develop a better understanding of complex systems composed of interconnected parts, broadly known as systems thinking19. Systems thinking has been argued to be a key skill necessary to address complex issues such as climate change20, 21, 22. Some games allow for participation in interactive models, which enables policymakers, educators and scientists to quickly and easily test decisions and predict outcomes from actions on climate change. For example, Climate Interactive (http://www.climateinteractive.org) is a collection of simulations that allow for the manipulation of hundreds of variables such as fuel prices, energy consumption and population growth to model the resulting effects on world climate. The simulations are based on peer-reviewed scientific data and can be used in a variety of facilitation contexts23, 24. As the simulations allow for direct interaction with complex models, they enable participants to inform and update their own mental models24, 25. Climate change games are considered 'serious games' that are designed to have underlying objectives beyond mere entertainment such as instructional goals26, 27, 28. Game characteristics such as goals, rules, or the use of fantasy not only promote player engagement, but also influence learning28, 29. Research supporting game-based learning extends back to the 1970s, when one of the first large-scale reviews synthesized seven years of research and included an examination of more than 150 studies30. Since then, empirical evidence supporting cognitive gains from instructional games has accumulated31, 32. The impact on affective and motivational outcomes has also been identified33, 34. Although some studies have suffered from a lack of rigour and validity in experimental design35, the conclusion that people can learn from playing games is overwhelmingly supported by a large base of empirical evidence30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37. Aside from the versatility and learning opportunities that games provide, they are fun. This quality is perhaps what is most compelling about the role of games in climate change education. A good game is able to engage players for long periods of time, engendering a desire to continue playing and learning about the topic in hand by trying and experiencing alternative approaches and outcomes38. In other words, good games possess high intrinsic value and are naturally motivating and engaging39. More and more people are playing games: a nationally representative survey in the USA recently found that close to 60% of Americans play videogames40, or an estimated 185 million people41. As a result, gamers represent a large potential audience for raising awareness and promoting engagement. Tapping into even a small fraction of that user base could provide ample opportunity for these endeavours42.
The first environmental games relating to climate change were designed more than 30 years ago, beginning as board-games that modelled increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere43. From there, climate change games slowly grew in number and sophistication. By the time the first review article was published 14 years later, they covered a variety of topics and had a predominant focus on understanding mechanisms44. Technological developments also enabled a broader range of formats, with about half of the reviewed games making use of computers44. Since then, the number of climate change games has risen dramatically, especially in the past ten years. An extensive web-based search of climate change games was recently conducted9. The authors found that role play and management games comprise the most popular category, followed by online games and then board-games. Whereas climate change games were once predominantly produced at academic institutions, commercial entities and governmental agencies are becoming increasingly involved9. A notable example of this is Keep Cool, one of the first commercially available board-games about climate change45. In Keep Cool, players represent groups of countries that negotiate with each other on issues of economic growth and the mitigation of climate change. Players can choose between low- and high-emitting factories, invest in scientific research and development on mitigation, and account for lobbying groups such as oil companies and environmentalists. Extreme events such as droughts and floods increase with the rise in global mean temperature, forcing players to balance a host of economic, political and environmental factors. Keep Cool represents an advanced board-game that provides a tool for players to discuss a variety of issues on climate change. Not all climate change games are as complex as Keep Cool. Computer games, in particular, now offer a great diversity on the topic of climate change that vary widely in quality and technical sophistication. A significant number of online climate change games exist as mini-games or simple simulations. These are generally found on websites geared towards younger audiences. Notable examples are the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Climate Kids (http://climatekids.nasa.gov) and Earth Day Canada's EcoKids (http://www.ecokids.ca). These games employ relatively simple mechanisms such as puzzles, trivia, or actions requiring hand-eye coordination. We find that most of these focus on environmentally friendly practices such as recycling, reducing waste, or taking alternative forms of transportation. Although some of the games discuss long-term climate effects, very few contain information about the mechanisms and processes believed to cause anthropogenic climate change. While simple online games targeted towards children have flourished, more serious climate change games continue to increase in complexity. These incorporate detailed mechanics and cover a broad range of physical, biological and sociopolitical topics. Take as an example Clim'way, which uses a highly graphical and interactive simulation of a metropolitan city46. Players make key decisions regarding city infrastructure (Fig. 1). They watch their city evolve over 50 simulated years, while learning about the scientific basis of their actions. Clim'way exemplifies computer games that are more complex, well-developed and scientifically informative.
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